STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE / (THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS)

THE PALLAVAS AND THE CHOLAS

The aryanisation of south India was complete during the rule of the Pal lavas. They exercised their supremacy for nearly 500 years, from the fifth century to the ninth century.

Pallavas were greater patrons or Sanskrit. Most of the inscriptions of the Pallavas were in Sanskrit and even in Tamil inscriptions the precast portions were composed in Sanskrit. Temples were important centers for Sanskrit studies. Bharavi, the well known poet of Sanskrit and the author of the Kiratarjuniyam. Is said to have adorned the court of a pallava king Simhavishnu. Similarly, Dan din, the famous author of a standard work on poetries, is reported to have flourished in the region of another pallava king Narasimkhavarman II. The University of Kanchi, the seat of Sanskrit learning t and the then greatest centers of education in the south, played an important patty in the cultural expansion in the south.

Since the pallavas were a great maritime power, their activities on the sea were mainly directed towards maintaining friendly relations and close contacts with the countries of the south - - east Asia. In the realm of religion the Pallavas had made their own contribution. The great religious reform which was to sweep India in the eighth century, originated at the Pallava court. The saliva and vaishnava Bhakti saints of the south flourished in the pallava period. ? The great saliva saints were the contemporizes of pallava king narshimhavarman. Similarly the of Bhakti literature – the Tevaram and the viruvachakam of the Saiva and the prabandham of the Palavers of the Vaishanavas belong to the Pallava age.

STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE / (THE GUPTA AGE)

THE GUPTA AGE

The Gupta Age is described as the Golden age of Indian History. The Gupta period really marks as spoch as it gave an impetus to the revival of national spirit which manifested itself in almost every aspect of the life of the nation. In the sphere of religion, the activities of the national spirit found expression in an era of the Brahman cal revival. But the Gupta period is conspicuously free from any trace of religious tyranny, intolerance and persecution. It was in the Gupta period that India entered her most glorious phase of cultural expansion.

In this age, Indian talent blossomed and unprecedented intellectual progress was achieved. The Sanskrit language was revived and the Gupta emperors liberally encouraged its use. Several literary works of great merit were produced. /World renowned poets like kalidas, grammarian and statesmen likes Viersen Sab, dramatist like Vishakhadatta and shudraka, celebrated Buddhist philosophers and authors like asanga, Vasubandhu, Arcade, dig nag and Jain Philosophers like Siddasen.Diwakar, samantbhadra,etc., flourished in the gupta period. Well – known works on astronomy and mathematics were produced and certain puranas and epics were given the final shape in which they are available today.

It was a most remarkable age from the artistic point of view. Architecture, sculpture, painting, terracotta, metallurgy,music, dancing etc. – all attained unprecedented progress under the Guptas.Tantricism was a significant development in religion.

STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE / (CONTRIBUTION OF THE KUSHANAS TO INDIAN CULTURE)

CONTRIBUTION OF THE KUSHANAS TO INDIAN CULTURE

The empire of the kushanas proved a great civilizing factor. It opened the way for the spread of Indian civilization to central and eastern Asia. Trade an commerce flowed between China, India, Persia, Mesopotamia and the Roman- empire. The kushana Ambassadors were dispatched to the great roman emperors. The ea – borne trade of India was carried, under the Ushanas, through the Persian Gulf and The Red Sea.

The Kushanas were patrons of literature and art. A large volume of Sanskrit literature of high standard, both religious and secular, was produced in the congenial atmosphere of royal –patronage. The name of the kushan emperor, kanishaka is associated with several eminent Buddhist writers, Asvaghosha, Nagarjuna, Vasumitra and Charak, the reputed count physician of Kannishka, was the celebrated author of the ayurvedic science.

An important event of Ushan Empire is that it not only witnessed the extension of Buddhism but also the most serious dissension with the bosom of the Buddhist church itself. It was this changes in the Buddhist creed which permanently divided Buddhist church into two big camps – Ghanaian and Mahayana, the former was the original Buddhism and the latter the new school of Buddhism

In the Kushana Age, Buddhism in its new form spread rapidly to many countries beyond the borders of India to Tibet, China, Burma and Japan. Mahayanist is called the northern school of Buddhism and Sanskrit is the vehicle of its literature. To distinguish it from the old or hanuman Buddhism which is called the southern school has pail as the medium of its sacred texts.

STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE (THE SHUNGA – SATAVAHANA – SAKA AGE)

  The mauran emperors were succeeded in Magadha by the Sung a and Kanva rulers, while the Greeks, the parathions, the sakas and the Kushanas ruled the north – west frontier. In the trans – vindhyan India a new power was rising under the Satavahanas. The satavahana rule lasted for nearly three thunder years. Together with these kingdoms a large number of indigenous states also flourished in northern India during the long period of approximately four centuries.

There was an outburst of activity in the realms of religion literature and art. Under the liberal patronage of kanishaka, Buddhism pared far and wide especially in central Asia and China. Bhavata (the cult to Vasudeva – Krishna) and Saiva sects were growing in importance. Many foreigners were convened to Bhangvata religion. The famous Greek ruler Menander embraced Buddhism while Saka rulers embraced the Vedic religion.

The alien rulers in India, the Greeks, the sakes and the Keshena’s were indianite. The missionary activities of the votaries of Buddhism and of Vedic religion outside India enabled the Indians to set up their cultural centres.The presences of aliens, especially the Greeks, restored India’s contact with foreign countries. besides opening avenues for brisk foreign trade. India art and science were also influenced by the Hellenic culture. The rise of the Gandhar School of art testifies to the prevalence o foreign influence on the art of the country.

Inspite of the existence of a large number of sects and creeds, the votaries of different faiths were living in percept harmony. The national art of India underwent a rapid development in this period. The artists took considerable pain in carving and evolved perfect techniques of sculpture. This ws probably on account of the natural growth of an aesthetic progress.

For the first time Indian art became conscious of the socio – economic structure of the society and in view of the social psychology learn “to differentiate between the subtle and the violent shades and emotions of the human heart. The base reliefs of Bharhut, sanchi, Amravati and other places serve the purpose of joy, emotions and movements of the life of the masses. 

STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE / (THE MAURYAN AGE)

 THE MAURYAN AGE:
The rise of the Mauryan sty ushers in a new era in the political and cultural history of India. it was in the Mauryan Age that India became the cultural ambassador of the wold sending out missionaries to spread to India's civilization ad religion to distant parts of te globe. India under the Maura's sought to build a new world based on peace,brotherhood ad cultural it.

Te Ara period is a great la dark i the history of the Indian Art. In fact, the history of Indian Art begins with the advent of the areas.The stone Minuets of Asloka ave defied te ravages of tie ad they form the earliest sculpture attained during this period suggests that it had a long period of continuous and steady developments.Tradition credits Asoka with building 84, 000 pastas all over India and Afghanistan.

The Monolithic pillars or lats set up by Asoka furnish, perhaps, the finest, the most beautiful and characteristic specimens of the remains of the Mauryan art.These Asoka n pillars are a triumph of engineering, architecture and sculpture.The capital of the Sarnath Pillar is undoubtedly the most magnificent and has been declared the finest piece of sculptrue.
Dr. V.A. Smith makes the following observation on the Sarnath capital, which is our national emblem.
"It would be difficult to find countryman an example of ancient sculpture or even equal to this beautiful work of art, which successfully combines realistic modelling with ideals dignity and is finished in every detail with perfect accuracy".

STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE / (THE AGE OF THE BUDHA AND MAHAVIRA AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF BUDDHISM AND JAINSIM OF INDIAN CULTURE

THE AGE OF THE BUDHA AND MAHAVIRA AND THE CONTRIBUTION OF BUDDHISM AND JAINSIM OF INDIAN CULTURE 

The sixth century B.C. witnessed great religious ferment in the world. It was an age when people in India were disgusted with philosophical dogmas and were striving for simple methods of worship and easier means of escape from the ills of this mundane existence. It was an era of revolt - an age of protest against the old order of things.The thinkers of new movement were pure intellectualism - philosophers. The greatest of these wandering teachers were the two Kshatriya Princes, viz. Vardhamana Mahavir and Gautam Buddha. The philosophy and the ideologies of the former took the shape of a reforming movement known as jainism, while those of the latter led to te other movement called Buddhism. 

Jainism and Budhism were the reformation movements of Hinduism. Mahavir did not believe that God created this world or that he exercised any creative spirit, nor is there any creator necessary to explain the nature of the world. He regarded all objects, animate or inanimate, as endowed with various degrees of consciousness, so the greatest emphasis is laid on the doctrine of ahimsa or non - injury to any kind of living being. 

Mahavir successfully founded the Jain Church. His severe asceticism and simple doctrines attracted many followers. The joins have played a very important part in the development of the languages of the country. The joins utilized the prevailing spoken language of different times at different places in the country for their religious propaganda and preservation of the sacred knowledge. Their religious literature is very vast. they have also produced a rich literature in Sanskrit and Prakrit,both narrative and philosophical, and works on technical subjects like grammar, prosody, lexicography and mathematics are also not wanting.

STAGES IN THE EVOLUTION OF INDIAN CULTURE / (LATER VEDIC AGE)

LAST VEDIC AGE :

The period following that of the Rigged is known as the later Vedic age, when later Vedic. Samaritans, Brahmans, Upanishads, etc. were composed. During this period stately cities and extensive compact kingdoms came into existence. The society underwent a complete change.The concept of Varnasrama (Varnas - ashrams) became the focal points of the social and individual life. The functions and duties, the privileges and status of the four individual life.The functions and duties, the privileges and status of the four vars were minutely defined. Significant changes also took place in the religious life of the people. We discover three distinct currents of religious thought - the ritualistic, the philosophic and the ascetic. Hinduism was fully expounded in the later Vedic literature - the Brahmans, the Upanishads and parasympathetic doctrines about the Soul (Atman), the absolute (Brahma), relation between god and man, and the principles of Karma, Maya,maukti, transmigration of soul and other special features that have dominated Hindu way of life and thought were evolved, stated and elaborated in the Upanishads.

But the most important achievement of this period is the geographical conquest of India. The rivers, the mountains and the general features of every part of India were known. The Aryan culture and thoughts were spread ll over the country. 

GENERAL STUDIES MODERN INDIAN HISTORY( Social ,Political ,Cultural)

e.      Social

The fundamental basis of the social life of the whole country is common. The concept of the joint family, although essentially a feature of Hindu society, became a common feature of the Indian social life. The social values, festivals, special ceremonies, modes of live, etc. are also common to all the communities an sects.

f.        Political

The rulers of India tried to establish their way over the whole country and fostered its unity. The term ‘Ekrat’ is more significant as applying to the ‘Kings ruling over the whole country’. The geographical conception of the identity and individuality of the country in all its vastness and variety led of the attainment of its political unification under various sovereigns. The concept of united India, both as a geographical and political unit, has received highest attention of the Indian people and they have been conscious of maintaining the unity of India.

g.       Cultural

A peculiar type of culture and civilization utterly different from any other type in the world has been involved among the diverse communities in India. This culture has a fundamental unity. In spite of different languages, customs, political disunity and geographical impediments, a uniform cultural stamp was printed upon the literature and thoughts of all the different units of India. There has been a basic unity of literary ideas, philosophy, and conventions and out lock of the people throughout the country. There has been close socio – cultural cooperation among the followers of different creeds and communities. Instances of their close friendship are abundant. Indian art, literature and music have greatly helped in strengthening this cultural unity. The composite culture of India is a living example of her fundamental cultural unity.

Thus, in spite of its astounding diversity, India is herself a living example of the doctrine of one in many. There is a profound unity in diversity – a unity far more strong and deep – rooted than that

ESSENTIALS OF INDIAN CULTURE

Connected with the question of culture is the value and importance of Indian contribution in this sphere. in the words of Sri Aerobe indo, India’s constant effort has been to find a basis of living in the higher spiritual truth and to live from the sprit onwards”. An integral conception of spirituality stands for a synthesis of the best in western materialism and the best in Eastern Philosophy, life and spirituality. its vitality springs, not from any particular man of genius. but from the uninterrupted flow of generations of men across the centuries. Culture, which is an ethereal message of the spirit, floats above the most violent upheavals, or remains hidden in the shadown for generations, patiently awaiting the opportunity of claiming its right to live.

The Indian culture, therefore, seeks a wider harmony, reconciling spirit with the matter, preserving the truths of material science and its real utility but at the same time keeping intact the spirit as the key – stone of the arch of our culture.

Our culture is distinguished by its possession of a number of important characteristics or qualities. In the first place, our culture is characterized by tolerance. All sorts of races and creeds have found their habitation in India but they have not been persecuted as in the case of the medieval Europe. Together with toleration, we have balance or equipoise also as a marked characteristic of our culture. Again our culture is characterized by harmony or cosmic order, what the Vedas called the “Rta’. Things happened not fortuitously or accidentally, but according to certain order and in a certain continuity.

Some of the main features of Indian culture are:

I. Continuity and change

The Indian culture which has developed during the course of several centuries is the only surviving culture of the world, which has not fundamentally changed for many thousand years. India and china have, in fact, the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world. But with the success of the Chinese revolution, the cultural continuity in china has, to a great extent, been disturbed, while Indian culture still survives with vigor and vitality and is receptive to modern thoughts. The liberal and receptive character of Indian culture. On the one hand, saved it from any cultural clash and, on the other, rendered it ever-lasting. Indian culture is free from ideological conflicts and complexities of religion, which has helped it grew as an eternal culture. The whole culture has been growing, changing and developing in accordance with the needs of time and circumstances, without losing it essential and imperishable spirit.

II) Human culture with universal appeal

From time immemorial Indians have called their culture by the name of human culture. It has tried to be so comprehensive as to suit the needs of every human being, irrespective of age, sex, colure or race. Without any state support or patronage, it has flourished and endured. The human element has been dominant in almost every facet of Indian culture and in almost every facet of Indian culture and in almost every aspect of its thought “man” is the ultimate of this culture.

III. Tolerance

The tolerance of differences of opinion and creed within its own fold and even outside itself, its an essential characteristic of Indian culture. This tolerance was manifested in the philosophical doctrines known as Anekantvad the concept of one in many. Since the Indian culture is not averse to foreign elements, it has gained in vigor in every age by absorbing all that is best in the cultures with which it came in contact. The tolerance of Indian culture not only saved it from conflict, but also greatly enriched its content.

Iv.positivist thought

The element of positivist thought has greatly influenced Indian culture through the ages. It is sometimes assumed that Indian culture I more concerned with the other world than with the Interests of this world and its material life. But this is a misconception. In act, a student of Indian culture investigating its principles, contents, and characteristics will find that a good deal of what now passes as socialism or communism is contained in essence is some of the traditions and institutions’ in which the Indian culture has manifested itself. Some of the deities worshipped are symbolic of the welfare state and represent re igion as social service. Service of man has been adopted as a mode of worshipping good conceived of as Nar – Narayan, God – in Man. The Vedic ideal of worshipping god by serving man was later embodied in a regular religious system which presents Hinduism as consisting of stages in the progressive evolution of the individual into a universal being, which constitutes the ultimate meaning of religion. This positivist outlook has molded India’s cultural history through the ages.

v. catholicity

One of the most attractive things about Indian culture is its catholicity. It not only believes in universal toleration but also accepts all religious as true. Indian culture has room for all. It is “totalitarian” in accepting g everything through a deep understanding of the fundamentals and of the ultimate reality. In fact, the enrichment of Indian culture has been achieved tho\rough its catholicity.

vi. Universality

 The essential characteristics of Indian culture have a universal appeal. In its hay days. It was carried across the frontiers of Indian and was adopted in different parts of the world. It memory has become a part of the Asiatic consciousness, tingling it outlook on life. Today, it is a vital element in the world thought and offers the necessary corrective to the predominantly rationalistic pragmatism of the west. it has, therefore, universal appeal. The vision of India is Indian only in the sense that it ws formulated by minds belonging to the Indian soil. The value of that vision does not reside in any tribal or provincial characteristics, but in those elements of Universality which appeal to the whole world.

RACIAL FACTOR IN INDIAN CULTURE.

We have now seen how India’s geography has influenced her culture. As for the racial factor, that too, has been responsible for the shape the Indian culture has assumed through the course of centuries. The fundamental thing about culture is thing intimate association with historic development Indian history explains why the mosaic of our culture is so rich and multi colured. Races after races have poured into India lent their original contribution to our culture and have been assimilated in the Indian milieu. India has been called a museum of races. The anthropological survey of India has classified the races of India into eighteen categories.

The classification is not, however, watertight and there is considerable overlapping. Charcterisictics.  In many cases are toned down by economic conditions, environments, group – life and so on. as a result of common life in India these races have been modified in their characteristics and evolution of a common Indian type and culture has been the result. We may now discuss some of the contributions made by these races to the Indian culture.

The proto – austroloids are supposed to have given us the custom of disposal of the ideally by exposure, communal houses, heed – hunting, canoe cult, introduction of pottery, idea of to monism and religion, terraced cultivation of rice and some fruits and vegetables. The Mediterranean people represented chiefly by the Dravidians who are long – headed have been responsible for the city culture. They have also led India in the matter of foreign trade. Their language now forms a solid block in the Deccan and south India. It is surmised that the people of Harappa and Mohan – jo – daro were Dravidians. The Dravidians have contributed the cult of Shiva, the worship of Mother Goddess or Shakti and also the institution of ‘Yog’. Many features of our temple architecture have been of the Dravidian Origin.

Besides the above indigenous racial types, a large number of foreign races kept on pouring in this country long before the beginning of Christian era. The Greeks, Sake, Parthian, Hunas, Turks, Afghans, Persians, Mongols, etc. poured into this country and were all assimilated into the mainstream. The multiracial character gave richness and variety of Indian culture –leading to the growth of composite culture.

CULTURE AND CIVILIZATION

Culture is a concept which cannot be easily defined. There is no single character of mark which can be regarded as the essence or differential of culture. It is always a combination of many strands of varying importance and vitality. If we attempt to differentiate between culture and civilization, we might say that civilization is organization of life which makes civil society grow. Such civil society is a necessary condition for corporate life on which along individuals can pursue fruitful and creative activity. Culture, on the other hand, is the outcome of such organization and expresses itself through language and art, through philosophy and religion, through social habits and customs and through political institutions and organizations. None of them is separately culture, but collectively they constitute an expression of life which we describe as culture. In so far as civilization is organization of society which creates the conditions needed for development of culture, there can be no culture without civilization, but there may be civilizations which have not yet developed their culture. Culture is the efflorescence of civilization.

Man’s limited power and resources compelled association. Association secured the conditions of survival and once survival was guaranteed, it released sufficient energies for the development of culture on a rudimentary scale. Culture was, therefore, the result of liberation from the urgency of the problem of existence while civilization was the form of machinery evolved for the achievement of such liberty. It is, therefore, not surprising the culture should be less pervasive and widespread than civilization. What is surprising is that Indian should seem to offer an example where culture is almost as extensive as civilization itself.

The experience of some western countries gives us examples of civilization without culture. In fact, one of the most serious problems of modem times is to create a culture for nations which have achieved a high degree of success in evolving the organization and instruments of civilization. In India, on the other hand, the processes of civilization have not been so highly developed as in Europe or America, but the state of civilization evolved has expressed itself in the pervasive character of culture which envelopes the vast majority of her people.